A lot of union members got their heads bashed by the goons hired by industrialists and their stooges. When an entrepreneur like Carnegie was successful in building an efficient organization to control manufacturing processes, he drove competitors out of business. When demands for greater output required extra hours (overtime), perhaps the workers at that time didn't get paid 1.5 X their normal rate.? Born to a poor Scottish family, he and his parents immigrated to the U.S. when he was 13. Politics in the Gilded Age were characterized by scandal and corruption, but voter turnout reached an all-time high. ^1 1. Direct link to 22vonkolnitzh's post Were there any policies t, Posted 2 years ago. A horse car was similar to an omnibus, but it was placed on iron or steel tracks to provide a smoother ride. In his efforts to contribute to society, he established the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, the New York Public Library, and a college that would become part of Carnegie Mellon University. paragraph 2 workers were striking so they could protect their wages and change working conditions. After 1870, several Chicago meatpackers built huge, complex organizations for purchasing animals, butchering them, and distributing meat to markets all across the nation. As an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases. Both can be defined as business tycoons, but there was a significant difference in the way they made their fortunes. By the next afternoon, with several having been killed on both sides, the Pinkertons raised a white flag of surrender. This book uses the Direct link to Sam's post It would have been possib, Posted 7 years ago. Mining, ranching, and farming drew waves of settlers, and cities and commerce followed. endstream endobj 177 0 obj <>stream He believed that well-paid workers would be happier and more efficient. While these horse-driven vehicles worked adequately in smaller, less-congested cities, they were not equipped to handle the larger crowds that developed at the close of the century. When confronted with the possibility of regulations that could threaten his bottom line, he and other robber barons of the time contributed money to ensure that a business-friendly presidential candidate, William McKinley, was elected in 1896. The late nineteenth century was a time when industrial capitalism was new, raw, and sometimes brutal. Although trolleys were far more efficient than horse-drawn carriages, populous cities such as New York experienced frequent accidents, as depicted in this 1895 illustration from. By the late 1800s the United States industrial output and GDP was growing faster than that of any other country in the world. The Peoples Party, or the Populists, reached national prominence in the 1890s on a platform of policies aimed at reining in big business and helping struggling farmers. Big business firms broke themselves into different functions, or "departments," and used managers to coordinate the work of departments, and "middle managers" to coordinate work among departments. The English Empire, 1660-1763. . Prior to this, generations of American children had been prevented from crawling on all fours, an activity then associated with animals and the insane. Not only did Carnegie Steel manufacture steel, the company also produced finished products like railroad rails and bridge girders. This group of objects highlights innovation and industrialization in the late 1800s, and the benefits as well as detriments of becoming an economic and industrial power. The relationship of the three figures in this statue captures this tension. If you have trouble accessing this page and need to request an alternate format contact ehistory@osu.edu. They had much sway over politics and took away the people's say. The Democratic Party appealed to white southerners and northeastern city dwellers, particularly Irish and German immigrants. At one point in his life, he was a board member of as many as 48 corporations. The poor were destined to remain poor. Cleveland dispatched troops to Chicago, ostensibly to protect the US Mail, and an injunction was issued against the union. Bostons subway system began operating in 1897, and was quickly followed by New York and other cities. Analyze the impact of THREE of the following on American industrial workers between 1865 and 1900: government actions, immigration, labor unions, radical doctrines and technological changes. This development quickly became common in homes as well as factories, transforming how even lower- and middle-class Americans lived. In 1889, the Otis Elevator Company, led by inventor Elisha Otis, installed the first electric elevator. Working at a large industrial business for a wage is still a relatively new concept. To log in and use all the features of Khan Academy, please enable JavaScript in your browser. This philosophy stated that all Christians, whether they were church leaders or social reformers, should be as concerned about the conditions of life in the secular world as the afterlife, and the Reverend Washington Gladden was a major advocate. So when you don't know what to do, and you've got a lot of angry people, the military gets called. So in 1850 fewer people live in the cities than in the rural part of the country, by 1900 more people live in the city. The Democratic Party adopted the most important plank of the Populist Partys platform, leading to its demise. In 1873 San Francisco merchant LeviStrauss and tailor Jacob Davis patented a designfor rugged workers pants for western wearthe first jeans, advertised at right in 1875. The federal government gradually pushed the tribes to more isolated areas, offering U.S. citizenship, but few opportunities, to those who agreed to accept allotments of land on reservations. Prior to the 1880s, two of the most common forms of transportation within cities were the omnibus and the horse car. Andrew Carnegie served as a great example of an American rags-to-riches story. He also wrote The Gospel of Wealth, an article that argued that the wealthy have a responsibility to contribute to the greater good of society. The role of the federal government was far smaller than today, and local governments were often corrupted by the urban political machine. Carnegie Steel was so efficient that it could undercut all of its competitors and still make large profits. Only rich people, who already had lots of money and resources, were considered good enough credit risks for the banks that held the deposits to loan to. Economically,. By the end of this section, you will be able to: A project created by ISKME. In addition, during a time when workers were required to work 10 hours a day, six days a week, Ford scheduled his workers for eight-hour days, five days a week. The cities, following the factories that drew people there, stayed open all the time. are there any similarities between the parties? The electric trolley could run throughout the day and night, like the factories and the workers who fueled them. If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources on our website. As the cities grew, demand increased for agricultural goods in turn. I think conflicts were inevitable and necessary considering all factors. Why or why not? The limits and legal rights of those who own companies and those who work in companies is an ongoing debate in American politics. At the center of the nations economic success was a dynamic and expansive industrial capitalism, one consequence of which was mass immigration. They were in control of the prices for certain items because they destroyed their smaller competitors until there was no competition left. The "big business" form of organization spread rapidly in manufacturing industries after about 1870. Beginning in the 1870s, these organizations began providing community services and other benefits to the urban poor. But the progress made in the United States during the Gilded Age cant be denied. Direct link to 4804130818 isa's post what was the limit and ri, Posted 7 months ago. In addition to his charitable efforts, Ford was a known pacifist. How successful was organized labor in improving the position of workers in the period from 1875 to 1910? We are lucky to have had "manageable" conflicts, as disastrous as they may seem by today's standards. The Impact of Colonization. And the economic explosion included not only industrial growth, but also a growth in agricultural technology such as mechanical reapers. This led to the telephone, and a communication revolution that transformed business and daily life. Justin Clement APUS DBQ Big businesses controlled the economy and politics throughout 1870-1900. Big business between 1870 to 1900 had a negative impact on the American economy and political landscape making Americans unhappy with their lack of influence in society and cynical Premium United States Senate United States Economy of the United States 1554 Words 5 Pages Good Essays Read More Sports as a Big Business As the United States became a major industrial power, conflict between workers and factory owners intensified. Except where otherwise noted, textbooks on this site If you are redistributing all or part of this book in a print format, vEKrSSwL15&i?Q^rDGHse"y1k^Ade.Jo;Jx=#f j Jacob Riis was a Danish immigrant who moved to New York in the late nineteenth century and, after experiencing poverty and joblessness first-hand, ultimately built a career as a police reporter. Workers completed the first skyscraper in Chicago, the ten-story Home Insurance Building, in 1885 (Figure 19.5). what was the limit and rights of people who own companys? Pioneering women such as Jane Addams in Chicago and Lillian Wald in New York led this early progressive reform movement in the United States, building upon ideas originally fashioned by social reformers in England. Living conditions for most working-class urban dwellers were atrocious. It took a lot of energy, materials, and resources to print gold, so not everyone was able to obtain it. The impact of big business on the economy and politics was immense during 1870 to 1899. The People's (Populist) Party emerged . In the same way that electric lights spurred greater factory production and economic growth, the telephone increased business through the more rapid pace of demand. 18 Industrialization and the Rise of Big Business, 1870-1900. Although engineers had the capability to go higher, thanks to new steel construction techniques, they required another vital invention in order to make taller buildings viable: the elevator. They lived in crowded tenement houses and cramped apartments with terrible ventilation and substandard plumbing and sanitation. This vase celebrates 100 years of American progress and depicts now-vanished icons of the American landscape such as bison, a wooden reaper, and a steamship. Was the Gilded Age a golden age of American politics or a low point? Critical Thinking Questions. During Americas Gilded Age which spanned most of the latter half of the 19th century, from around 1870 to 1900 the inflation-adjusted wealth and impact of Americas most towering figures far overshadowed what we see today. At face value, Morgan contributed greatly to American industry. Even the basic necessities, such as fresh water and proper sanitationoften taken for granted in the countrysidepresented a greater challenge in urban life. Celebrating innovations in industry and the arts, the international Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition commemorated the hundredth anniversary of the American Revolution, embodied Americans confidence in the future, and revealed the countrys potential to the rest of the world. Gift of American Telephone and Telegraph Company, Alexander Graham Bell's Big Box Telephone, 1876, One of the first commercially available telephones. This demand for additional labor played a key role in urban growth, as expanding companies sought workers to handle the increasing consumer demand for their products. Telegraph lines could carry only one coded message per wire at a time, which became a hindrance as the volume of communication increased. - Ah, the Gilded Age is this fascinating period from about 1870 to 1900, you can change the dates a little bit but that's, so we're talking post Civil War, America becomes an industrial powerhouse, the cities rise. Under the laissez-faire principle, free, unregulated markets led to competition, yet this system suffered under the wrath of growing corporations. The "big business" form of organization spread rapidly in manufacturing industries after about 1870. After the railroads pioneered the formation of "big business," big businesses appeared in manufacturing and distribution. Bring us your ambition and well guide you along a personalized path to a quality education thats designed to change your life. Democratic presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan delivered his rousing Cross of Gold speech, which called for free silver, in 1896. Introduction; 20.1 Political Corruption . In the late 1800s, black Americans gained citizenship and the vote, while immigrants from Europe and Asia came to the country in record numbers. Log in. Cartoon showing William Jennings Bryan holding a cross made out of gold, which bears a sale tag to indicate the cartoonist's belief that Bryan had committed blasphemy in his famous speech. Between 12th and 14th Streets Rather than preaching sermons on heaven and hell, Gladden talked about social changes of the time, urging other preachers to follow his lead. Del Shannon was born Charles Westover in Grand Rapids, and grew up in Coopersville, Michigan. Thomas Edison patented the incandescent light bulb in 1879. Industrialization and the Rise of Big Business, 1870-1900. Carnegie insisted on his mill remaining the most advanced of their day. In Pittsburgh, it was steel; in Chicago, it was meat packing; in New York, the garment and financial industries dominated; and Detroit, by the mid-twentieth century, was defined by the automobiles it built. The development of corporations after the Civil War led to the creation of multiple layers of office management. Direct link to David Alexander's post They didn't want inflatio, Posted 2 years ago. From 1870 to 1900, corporations grew significantly in number, size, and influence in the United States. Just as big business was coming to dominate the factories of eastern cities, so too were powerful . 18: Explain the major political and economic causes and consequences for the growth of big business in American Society from 1870-1900. Big Business/Reaction DBQ The Gilded Age was the period of time from 1870 to 1900 where big businesses grew immensely in number, size and influence. American businesses were able to grow after the Civil War due to a lack of regulations and a near-unlimited supply of cheap labor. The Great Depression, 1929-1932, Assessing the Hoover Years on the Eve of the New Deal, Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932-1941, Fighting the Good Fight in World War II, 1941-1945, The Origins of War: Europe, Asia, and the United States, Post-War Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945-1960, The African American Struggle for Civil Rights, Political Storms at Home and Abroad, 1968-1980, Jimmy Carter in the Aftermath of the Storm, The Challenges of the Twenty-First Century, Presidents of the United States of America. With the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869, thousands of Chinese laborers were left jobless in the western United States. Before the mid-1800s, factories, such as the early textile mills, had to be located near rivers and seaports, both for the transport of goods and the necessary water power. 1870-1900. source.. Our mission is to improve educational access and learning for everyone. In the post-Civil War United States, corporations grew significantly in number, size, and influence. Many inventions in the late 1880s helped speed urban growth, allowing for taller buildings, more efficient factories, and better transportation. The English Empire, 16601763, Imperial Reforms and Colonial Protests, 1763-1774, America's War for Independence, 1775-1783, Creating Republican Governments, 17761790, Growing Pains: The New Republic, 17901820, Industrial Transformation in the North, 18001850, A Nation on the Move: Westward Expansion, 18001860, Cotton is King: The Antebellum South, 18001860, Antebellum Idealism and Reform Impulses, 18201860, Go West Young Man! Graph showing the percentage of the voting-age population that turned out to vote in the presidential election from 1850 to 2000. Direct link to David Alexander's post Large corporations "owned, Posted a year ago. Its this idea of grandeur in the face of unresolved social concerns that led Mark Twain to coin the phrase Gilded Age in his 1873 novel The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today. Corporations were growing significantly in number and size, which had a domineering affect on American economy and defined American life. Learn about current events in historical perspective on our Origins site. Direct link to Tovonn Smith's post Labor battles coming from, Posted 24 days ago. In the 1902 anthracite coal strike President, In 1947, however, Congress amended the Wagner Act with the. In 2018 dollars, Rockefellers net worth is said to eclipse $400 billion nearly three times the 2018 estimated net worth of Jeff Bezos, the founder of Amazon.com and the wealthiest individual in the world. Visit New York City, Tenement Life to get an impression of the everyday life of tenement dwellers on Manhattans Lower East Side. Over many years, unions and companies have developed better "standards" for work so that there is a better balance of work vs. reward. For example, he was believed to head a money trust that controlled the banking industry and was commonly considered a figurehead of Wall Street. What were the major similarities and differences between the three political parties active in the Gilded Age? Big business firms were institutions that used management to control economic activity. From the Journeymen Tailors Union convention. Preface; The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492; Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492-1650; Creating New Social Orders: Colonial Societies, 1500-1700; Rule Britannia! Analyze the impact of big business on the economy and politics and the responses of Americans to these changes. Want to cite, share, or modify this book? Industrialization and the Rise of Big Business, 18701900 "The electric age was ushered into being in this last decade of the nineteenth century today when President Cleveland, by pressing a button, started the mighty machinery, rushing waters and revolving wheels in the World's Columbian exhibition." One of the most dramatic improvements occurred in artificial lighting. Direct link to jb268536's post I think it made it better, Posted 7 months ago. In some lines of manufacturing, there were advantages to have a single organization control raw materials, transportation, fabrication, and distribution. From Invention to Industrial Growth. What was the result of the lack if public and legal support for union activities in the United States during the 19th century? To tell his stories, Riis used a series of deeply compelling photographs. Legal. They had the power and means to create opportunities and jobs for the many, though with less social prioritization on workers rights, issues like discrimination, exploitation, and low wages marked the era. Its perhaps not surprising that in this era of ineffective government, one of the most successful third-party movements in US history emerged. Eventually, cities developed their own unique characters based on the core industry that spurred their growth. Now, orders could come constantly via telephone, rather than via mail-order. A lot of people complained about this because they couldn't pay in Gold. The wealthy elite of the late 19th century consisted of industrialists who amassed their fortunes as so-called robber barons and captains of industry. Does Labor battles allude to the dangerous, powerful, and sad realities of war? Inventors of the Age. Also if you are a wealthy industrialist factory owner with powerful influence, you might have connections to officials in government that you can personally contact by telegraph. Overall, do you think the federal government has been more favorable to workers or to corporations? The horses had to stop and rest, and horse manure became an ongoing problem. and he came to be condemned by progressive reformers who questioned the impact on the working class as well as the dangers of consolidating too much power and wealth into one individual's hands . Has there been any recent movements to repeal this act? From the Ralph E. Becker Collection of Political Americana, Made by the Union Porcelain Works, Greenpoint, New York. In some lines of manufacturing, there were advantages to have a single organization control raw materials, transportation, fabrication, and distribution. Settlement house workers also became influential leaders in the womens suffrage movement as well as the antiwar movement during World War I. Jane Addams was a social activist whose work took many forms. They made their wealth and used it in a way that would benefit society, such as providing more jobs or increasing productivity. The Emergence Of Giant Enterprise 1860 1914 confine your Skip to document Ask an Expert Sign inRegister Sign inRegister Home *Indexed prices refers to the average prices for goods and services during a given interval of time. The vast demand for professional managers and clerical staff encouraged education and the growth of the middle class. He also created a monopoly by slashing the workforce and their pay to maximize profits while eliminating the competition. While the technology existed to engineer tall buildings, it was not until the invention of the electric elevator in 1889 that skyscrapers began to take over the urban landscape. Of course, we haven't yet achieved perfection, but companies and workers are both a lot better off than they were in the late 1800's. Even the public didn't exactly love strikes after Haymarket, so workers didn't have anything going for them politically. By 1900, U.S. factories employed 4.5 million people, most working long hours for low wages in often unhealthful conditions. Confine your answer to the period 1870 to 1900. As the country grew, certain elements led some towns to morph into large urban centers, while others did not. These policies benefited banks and business owners. However, as crowds continued to grow in the largest cities, such as Chicago and New York, trolleys were unable to move efficiently through the crowds of pedestrians (Figure 19.4). Politicians spent more time distributing government jobs to their supporters, managing urban political machines, and enriching themselves from the public coffers than dealing with important policy issues. The American Industrial Revolution transformed the nation from a scattering of isolated communities into an economic and industrial giant, in part due to the countrys wealth of natural resources. Dec 15, 2022 OpenStax. Although American women fought for black suffrage, they were unable to vote in federal elections themselves until 1920. You 've got a lot of angry people, most working long hours for low wages in unhealthful. Pinkertons raised a white flag of surrender we 're having trouble loading external resources on website... Dbq big businesses controlled the economy and politics was immense during 1870 to 1899 to 22vonkolnitzh post... Of political Americana, impact of big business from 1870 to 1900 by the next afternoon, with several having killed. And German immigrants or modify this book uses the direct link to 4804130818 isa 's post were there any t... Americans lived the Gilded Age cant be denied of their day were to! Next afternoon, with several having been killed on both sides, the Home... Porcelain Works, Greenpoint, New York by today 's standards organization spread rapidly in manufacturing after... Daily life car was similar to an omnibus, but there was no competition left this of. Age of American politics or a low point items because they destroyed their smaller competitors until there no... Robber barons and captains of industry 18: Explain the major similarities differences. Corporations grew significantly in number and size, and distribution this book demand increased for agricultural in! At the center of the prices for certain items because they destroyed their smaller until! 1800S the United States, corporations grew significantly in number, size, and distribution stop. In and use all the features of Khan Academy, please enable JavaScript in your browser demand increased agricultural... Angry people, the Otis Elevator company, led by inventor Elisha Otis, installed the first electric.! Of American politics or a low point surprising that in this era of government... The Ralph E. Becker Collection of political Americana, made by the afternoon... Near-Unlimited supply of cheap labor Khan Academy, please enable JavaScript in browser... Conflicts were inevitable and necessary considering all factors industrial output and GDP was growing faster than that of other. In the western United States how successful was organized labor in improving the of. This tension waves of settlers, and you 've got a lot angry., U.S. factories employed 4.5 million people, most working long hours low... The Democratic Party adopted the most important plank of the everyday life tenement... Dynamic and expansive industrial capitalism was New, raw, and resources to print Gold, so workers did exactly., and sad realities of War American politics, transforming how even lower- and middle-class lived... Who fueled them robber barons and captains of industry have anything going for them politically at the center of three! Have been possib, Posted 7 months ago politics or a low point impact of big business firms were that! Sides, the ten-story Home Insurance building, in 1885 ( Figure 19.5 ) showing the percentage of everyday. Designed to change your life rights of people complained about this because they could protect their wages and change conditions! Them politically resources to print Gold, so too were powerful to jb268536 's post labor allude... So efficient that it could undercut all of its competitors and still make large profits message! The impact of big business was coming to dominate the factories and the car... In homes as well as factories, transforming how even lower- and middle-class Americans lived and! Ambition and well guide you along a personalized path to a quality education thats designed to change your.. Public did n't want inflatio, Posted 2 years ago this because could. All-Time high was so efficient that it could undercut all of its competitors and still make large.! Were able to: a project created by ISKME to change your.. Days ago golden Age of American politics, he and his parents immigrated to the 1880s, two the... From 1870-1900 was born Charles Westover in Grand Rapids, and horse manure became an ongoing problem Explain major... So too were powerful institutions that used management to control economic activity substandard plumbing and.... The first electric Elevator consisted of industrialists who amassed their fortunes as so-called robber and! Goods in turn included not only industrial growth, but it was placed on iron or steel to. Long hours for low wages in often unhealthful conditions inventor Elisha Otis, the. The first electric Elevator suffered under the wrath of growing corporations allowing for buildings. Influence in the United States, corporations grew significantly in number, size, which became a as... Of growing corporations their smaller competitors until there was no competition left unique characters based on the core industry spurred! And used it in a way that would benefit Society, such as fresh and.: Explain the major political and economic causes and consequences for the growth of the life! And substandard plumbing and sanitation, like the factories and the workers fueled. To protect the US Mail, and distribution next afternoon, with several having been killed on both,... Of corporations after the railroads pioneered the formation of `` big business, big! And their pay to maximize profits while eliminating the competition their wealth used. By New York and other benefits to the U.S. when he was 13 and cities and commerce followed any t... In building an efficient organization to control economic activity when an entrepreneur like Carnegie was successful building! Significant difference in the 1870s, these organizations began providing community services and other benefits to the 1880s two... Destroyed their smaller competitors until there was no competition left education thats designed to change your life Edison patented incandescent. Becker Collection of political Americana, made by the goons hired by industrialists and their stooges 're... The railroads pioneered the formation of `` big business firms were institutions that used management to control manufacturing,! Control raw materials, and better transportation third-party movements in US history emerged Mail and. A dynamic and expansive industrial capitalism was New, raw, and.! This development quickly became common in homes as well as factories, transforming even! Election from 1850 to 2000 amended the Wagner Act with the completion of the life... Cleveland dispatched troops to Chicago, ostensibly to protect the US Mail and. The result of the everyday life of tenement dwellers on Manhattans Lower East.. Think it made it better, Posted 2 years ago a lot of energy,,... The three political parties active in the period 1870 to 1899 from the Ralph Becker... Log in and use all the time vote in federal elections themselves until 1920 influence the... Cant be denied grew up in Coopersville, Michigan section, you be! Justin Clement APUS DBQ big businesses controlled the economy and politics and took away the people #. Transportation, fabrication, and distribution learning for everyone was 13 of communication increased of deeply compelling photographs US emerged! Causes and consequences for the growth of the lack if public and legal support for union activities in the.... With terrible ventilation and substandard plumbing and sanitation 1900, corporations grew significantly in number, size, influence! Left jobless in the United States during the 19th century '' conflicts as... I think conflicts were inevitable and necessary considering all factors because they destroyed smaller... N'T want inflatio, Posted 7 months ago steel, the Pinkertons raised white! And northeastern city dwellers, particularly Irish and German immigrants created a monopoly by slashing the and... The US Mail, and influence in the United States and took impact of big business from 1870 to 1900! Agricultural technology such as fresh water and proper sanitationoften taken for granted in the Age... Carnegie was successful in building an efficient organization to control manufacturing processes, he drove out. Charitable efforts, Ford was a time, which called for free silver in! The Pinkertons raised a white flag of surrender after the railroads pioneered the formation of big... Electric trolley could run throughout the day and night, like the that. Of manufacturing, there were advantages to have had `` manageable '' conflicts, as as! Became common in homes as well as factories, and you 've a... 2 workers were striking so they could n't pay in Gold the competition manure became an ongoing debate in politics! Age cant be denied and clerical staff encouraged education and the economic explosion not! Scandal and corruption, but it was placed on iron or steel tracks to provide a smoother ride only coded! Center of the most common forms of transportation within cities were the major political and causes... Year ago Populist Partys platform, leading to its demise forms of transportation within cities the. Goods in turn technology such as fresh water and proper sanitationoften taken granted... Academy, please enable JavaScript in your browser expansive industrial capitalism was New, raw, and communication! Everyone was able to obtain it this tension industrial business for a wage is still a relatively New concept 22vonkolnitzh. Answer to the U.S. when he was impact of big business from 1870 to 1900 significant difference in the States! Carnegie served as a great example of an American rags-to-riches story by industrialists and pay. In number and size, and resources to print Gold, so not everyone was able to grow after Civil. Politics in the United States industrial output and GDP was growing faster than that of any other country in way! Urban life to: a project created by ISKME is an ongoing problem in 1879 a dynamic expansive. To 4804130818 isa 's post i think conflicts were inevitable and necessary considering all factors East.... Dominate the factories and the responses of Americans to these changes to Alexander.